Impacto de los determinantes sociales de la salud sobre la tasa de contagios por COVID-19 / Impact of the social determinants of health on the rate of infections by COVID-19

RESUMEN Objetivo Analizar el impacto entre los determinantes sociales en salud en México y la tasa de contagios por COVID-19. Método Estudio ecológico cuantitativo a nivel nacional y municipal. Las principales variables fueron tasa de contagios por COVID-19, población total no hablante de español, ingreso per cápita, pobreza e índice de desarrollo humano (IDH). La tasa media nacional de contagios fue de 2 880/100 000 habitantes. Se aplicó la prueba T-test y, para determinar la fuerza de asociación entre la tasa de contagios y las variables, se aplicó la prueba de correlación de Pearson. Resultados Las entidades con menos tasa de población no hablante de español tuvo la menor tasa de contagios por COVID-19. El análisis de correlación mostró que los estados con tasas de contagio por COVID-19 por arriba de la media nacional tienen mejores condiciones de desarrollo. Discusión En nuestros resultados se revela una correlación negativa entre las tasas contagios por COVID-19 y la variable pertenecer a población indígena. Es necesario analizar desde la perspectiva de las comunidades las necesidades para afrontar escenarios de pandemia.

ABSTRACT Objective To analyze the impact between the social determinants in health and the rate of COVID-19 infection. Methods Quantitative ecological study at national and municipal levels. The main variables were COVID-19 infection rate, total non-Spanish-speaking population, per capita income, poverty, and human development index (HDI). The average national infection rate was 2 880/100 000 inhabitants. The T-test was applied, and Pearson's correlation test was performed to determine the strength of the association between the infection rate and the variables. Results Entities with the lowest rate of non-Spanish-speaking population had the lowest rate of COVID-19 infections. The correlation analysis showed that states with COVID-19 infection rates above the national average have better development conditions. Discussion Our results reveal a negative correlation between COVID-19 infection rates and the variable belonging to an indigenous population. It is necessary to analyze from the perspective of the communities the needs to face pandemic scenarios.

Gobernanza en el sistema de salud ante la pandemia por Covid-19 en México / Governance in health system in the face of the Covid-19 pandemic in Mexico

Resumen: Objetivo: Analizar la gobernanza en el sistema de salud en México, en las políticas frente a la pandemia por Covid-19. Material y métodos: Estudio cualitativo, analítico, realizado entre junio y noviembre de 2020. Se analizaron 41 entrevistas semiestructuradas que se aplicaron a actores clave del sistema de salud y que se organizaron en el software ATLAS.ti 9. El análisis se adhirió a los principios teórico-metodológicos del Marco Analítico de Gobernanza. Resultados: El problema: la formulación de políticas fue centralizada; los actores: sólo los altos mandos participan en las decisiones; las normas: los valores sociales y el liderazgo determinan su nivel de responsabilidad; toma de decisiones: los altos mandos reconocieron poder para proponer modificaciones al Marco Normativo; los nodos: las políticas federales fueron adaptadas a nivel estatal de manera diferenciada. Conclusiones: La gobernanza centralizada, los niveles diferenciados de convocatoria de los actores, su poder de decisión, acuerdos, responsabilidad y liderazgo, definieron el alcance de la gobernanza y, a su vez, el nivel de respuesta ante la pandemia por Covid-19.

Abstract: Objective: Analyze governance in the Mexican health system, with regards to policies to combat the Covid-19 pandemic. Materials and methods: Qualitative, analytic study carried out from June to November, 2020. Forty-one semi-structured interviews with key actors in the health system were analyzed and organized in ATLAS.ti-v.9 software. The analysis followed theoretical-methodological principles of the Governance Analytical Framework. Results: The problem: the policy-making was centralized; the actors: only high level actors participated in the decisions; decision-making: high level actors recognized power to propose modifications in the regulatory framework; nodes: federal policies were adapted at the state level in a differential manner. Conclusions: Centralized governance, differential levels of convocation of actors, decision-making power, level of agreements, as well as responsibility and leadership, all defined the reach of governance and, in turn, the level of response to the Covid-19 pandemic.

Out-of-pocket and catastrophic expenses in households of patients with schizophrenia lacking social security / Gastos de bolsillo y catastróficos en hogares de pacientes con esquizofrenia sin seguridad social

Abstract: Objective: To estimate the magnitude of out-of-pocket (OOP) and catastrophic health expenses as well as impoverishment experienced by households of schizophrenia patients lacking social security coverage. Materials and methods: We conducted a cross-sectional study of 96 individuals treated outpatient consultation between February and December 2018, in a psychiatric hospital. Results: All households sustained OOP health expenses; the median was 510 USD (95%CI: 456-628). The OOP expenses represented 28 and 4% of the capacity to pay of poor and rich households, respectively. The 16% of households incurred catastrophic expenses and 6.6% have impoverishment for health reasons. Conclusions: Our results illustrate that pocket expenses and catastrophic expenses in patients with schizophrenia are higher than those reported for the general population. Therefore, it is necessary to rethink the financial protection policies aimed at patients with schizophrenia and their households.

Resumen: Objetivo: Estimar la magnitud del gasto de bolsillo y catastrófico en salud, así como el empobrecimiento experimentado por hogares de pacientes con esquizofrenia que carecen de cobertura en seguridad social. Material y métodos: Se hizo un estudio transversal de 96 pacientes tratados en consulta externa entre febrero y diciembre de 2018, en un hospital psiquiátrico. Resultados: Todos los hogares soportaron gastos de bolsillo (GB), la mediana fue 510 USD (IC95%: 456-628). Los GB representan 28 y 4% de la capacidad de pago de los hogares pobres y ricos respectivamente. El 16% de los hogares incurrió en gastos catastróficos y 6.6% tiene empobrecimiento por motivos de salud. Conclusiones: Los resultados muestran que los gastos de bolsillo y gastos catastróficos en pacientes con esquizofrenia son mayores que los reportados para población general, por lo que es necesario repensar las políticas de protección financiera dirigidas a pacientes con esquizofrenia y sus hogares.

Cost-effectiveness analysis of interventions to achieve universal health coverage for schizophrenia in Mexico / Análisis costo-efectividad de las intervenciones para alcanzar la cobertura universal en salud para esquizofrenia en México

Abstract Introduction To achieve universal coverage in mental health, it is necessary to demonstrate which interventions should be adopted. Objective Analyze the alternatives of pharmacological and psychosocial treatment in Mexico for patients diagnosed with schizophrenia, as well as Early Intervention in Psychosis Program. Method The Extended cost effectiveness analysis (ECEA), it is implemented under scenario the option of treatment in Mexico, which includes: typical or atypical antipsychotic medication plus psychosocial treatment, assuming that all the medications will be provided to the patient, a measure of effectiveness is the years of life adjusted to disability (DALYs). Results The effect of Universal Public Financing (UPF) is reflected in avoiding 147 DALYs for every 1,000,000 habitants. In addition, has a positive effect in the avoided pocket expenditures from US $ 101,221 to US $ 787,498 according to the type of intervention. Increasing government spending has a greater impact on the poorest quintile, as a distributive effect of the budget is generated. Respect to the value of insurance, the quintile III is the one who is most willing to pay for having insurance, on the other hand, in the highest income quintile, the minimum assurance valuation was observed. Discussion and conclusion The reduction in out-of-pocket spending is uniform across all quintiles; "Early Intervention in Psychosis Program" is not viable for middle income countries, as México. The ECEA is a convenient method to assess the feasibility and affordability of mental health interventions to generate information for decision makers.

Resumen Introducción Para lograr la cobertura universal en salud mental es necesario demostrar qué intervenciones deberían ser adoptadas. Objetivo Analizar las alternativas de tratamiento farmacológico y psicosocial para pacientes con esquizofrenia incluidas, así como un Programa de Intervención Temprana en Psicosis. Método El análisis costo efectividad extendido (ECEA) se implementó bajo un escenario que incluye: medicación antipsicótica típica o atípica más tratamiento psicosocial, asumiendo que todos los medicamentos serán provistos a los pacientes, la medición de la efectividad en términos de DALYs. Resultados El efecto del financiamiento público universal se refleja en evitar 147 DALYs por cada 1, 000,000 de habitantes. Además, tiene un efecto positivo en evitar pagos de bolsillo de US $ 101,221 a US $ 787,478 de acuerdo con el tipo de intervención. Incrementar el gasto del gobierno tiene un gran impacto sobre los quintiles más pobres como efecto distributivo del presupuesto. El quintil III de ingreso tiene mayor disposición a pagar el aseguramiento mientras que el quintil más rico tiene menor disposición a pagarlo. Discusión y conclusión La reducción de los gastos de bolsillo es uniforme en todos los quintiles de ingreso, pero el "Programa de Intervención Temprana en Psicosis" no es viable generalizarlo para países de ingreso medio, como México. El ECEA es un método conveniente para evaluar la factibilidad y asequibilidad de intervenciones en salud mental para generar información para los tomadores de decisiones.

Necesidades de atención en salud mental y uso de servicios en población mexicana con trastornos mentales graves / Mental health care needs and use of services in Mexican population with serious mental disorders

Resumen: Objetivo: Analizar las demandas de atención de los trastornos mentales graves (TMG) y factores asociados con la utilización de servicios en México. Material y métodos: Se llevó a cabo un estudio analítico transversal en dos fases: la primera con una base de datos nacional de servicios disponibles y su utilización; la segunda, una muestra de registros médicos de un hospital psiquiátrico. Resultados: La esquizofrenia es el TMG más prevalente; más de 50% de hospitalizados fueron hombres, con edad promedio 37 años. La utilización de servicios estuvo asociada con la edad (β=1.062; p=.000), ingreso familiar (β=1.000, p=.000) y no tener ocupación (β=3.407; p=.000). La población con esquizofrenia tiene cuatro veces más la probabilidad de requerir estar exenta de pago (β=4.158; p=.000). Conclusiones: La población con TMG es más vulnerable por la discapacidad funcional y social asociada; requiere de intervenciones específicas de salud acompañadas de una política de protección financiera adaptada a sus necesidades de atención.

Abstract: Objective: To analyze the mental health care needs of the serious mental disorders (SMD) and factors associated with the use of services in Mexico. Materials and methods: A cross-sectional analytical study was conducted in two phases, the first with a national database of available services and its utilization; the second, a sample of medical records of a psychiatric hospital. Results: Schizophrenia is the most prevalent MDS; more than 50% of those hospitalized were male, with an average age of 37 years. The use of services was associated with age (β=1.062, p=.000), family income (β=1.000, p=.000) and no laboral occupation (β=3.407, p=.000). The population with schizophrenia is four times more likely to require to be exempt from payment (β=4.158, p=.000). Conclusions: The population with SMD as schizophrenia is more vulnerable due to the associated functional and social disability and it requires specific heath interventions and a financial protection policy adapted to their mental health care needs.

Análisis de costos de atención médica para esquizofrenia y depresión en México para el periodo 2005-2013 / Cost analyses of medical care for schizophrenia and depression in México, 2005-2013 / Análises de custos da atenção médica para esquizofrenia e depressão no México no período de 2005-2013

El objetivo fue identificar los costos de la atención para enfermedades de salud mental en el sistema de salud de México. Se trata de una investigación evaluativa de tipo transversal retrospectivo. Se seleccionaron como trazadores del problema dos de las principales demandas de salud mental en los últimos años: depresión y esquizofrenia. La incidencia acumulada anual se identificó a partir del reporte epidemiológico por tipo de institución para el periodo 2005-2013. El costo del manejo anual de caso promedio se determinó a partir de la técnica de instrumentación y consenso, identificando las funciones de producción, el tipo de insumos, los costos y cantidad de insumos requeridos, concentrados en la matriz de caso promedio. Finalmente, se aplicó un factor de ajuste econométrico para controlar efecto inflacionario para cada año del periodo de estudio. El costo promedio del manejo anual de un caso en dólares americanos para esquizofrenia fue de 2.216,00 y para depresión 2.456,00. Para todas las instituciones del sistema de salud se observan tendencias epidemiológicas y económicas crecientes y constantes. El costo total para ambas enfermedades para el último año del periodo (2013) fue de USD 39.081.234,00, USD 18.119.877,00 para esquizofrenia y USD 20.961.357,00 para depresión. El mayor impacto para ambas enfermedades está en las instituciones para población no asegurada (USD 24.852.321,00) vs. población asegurada (USD 12.891.977,00). El costo de satisfacer la demanda de servicios para ambas enfermedades difiere considerablemente entre las instituciones que se ocupan de la población asegurada vs. población no asegurada, siendo mayor el de las segundas. Los indicadores epidemiológicos y económicos de este estudio contribuyen a la generación de evidencias para tomar decisiones en el uso y asignación de recursos para los servicios de salud que demandarán ambas enfermedades en los próximos años.

The study aimed to analyze the costs of medical care for mental disorders in the Mexican health system. This was a retrospective cross-sectional evaluation study. As markers for the problem, the study selected two of the principal psychological processes in mental disorders in recent years: depression and schizophrenia. Annual accumulated incidence was identified based on epidemiological reporting by type of institution in 2005-2013. The mean annual case management cost was determined with the instrumentation and consensus technique, identifying the production functions, types of inputs, costs, and amounts of inputs ordered, concentrated in the mean case matrix. Finally, an econometric adjustment factor was applied to control the inflationary effect for each year in the study period. Mean annual case management cost was USD 2,216.00 for schizophrenia and USD 2,456.00 for depression. All the institutions in the Mexican health system showed upward and constant epidemiological and economic trends. The total cost for the two disorders in the last year of the period (2013) was USD 39,081,234.00 (USD 18,119,877.00 for schizophrenia and USD 20,961,357.00 for depression). The largest impact for the two disorders combined was in institutions serving the population without health insurance (USD 24,852,321.00) versus the population with private insurance (USD 12,891,977.00). The cost of meeting the demand for services for the two disorders differs considerably between institutions that treat the population with private health service versus the population without, and is higher in the latter. The study's epidemiological and economic indicators provide evidence for decision-making in the use and allocation of healthcare resources for these two disorders in the coming years.

O trabalho teve como objetivo identificar os custos na atenção médica para doenças mentais no sistema de saúde no México. Trata-se de uma pesquisa de avaliação de tipo transversal retrospectiva. Foram selecionados como marcadores do problema dois dos principais processos psíquicos de doenças mentais nos últimos anos: depressão e esquizofrenia. A incidência acumulada anualmente foi identificada a partir do relatório epidemiológico por tipo de instituição no período de 2005-2013. O custo médio da gestão anual de caso foi determinado a partir da técnica de instrumentação e consenso, identificando-se as funções de produção, o tipo de insumos, os custos e quantidade de insumos solicitados, concentrados na matriz de caso médio. Por fim, foi aplicado um fator de ajuste econométrico para controlar o efeito inflacionário para cada ano do período de estudo. O custo médio da gestão anual de um caso em dólares americanos para esquizofrenia foi de 2.216,00 e para depressão 2.456,00. Para todas as instituições do sistema de saúde observam-se tendências epidemiológicas e econômicas crescentes e constantes. O custo total para ambas as doenças no último ano do período (2013) foi de USD 39.081.234,00 - USD 18.119.877,00 para esquizofrenia e USD 20.961.357,00 para depressão. O maior impacto para ambas as doenças encontra-se nas instituições para população sem seguro médico (USD 24.852.321,00) vs. população com seguro privado (USD 12.891.977,00). O custo a fim de poder satisfazer a demanda dos serviços para as duas doenças é diferente consideravelmente entre as instituições que se ocupam da população com seguro médico privado vs. população sem seguro médico, sendo maior o das segundas. Os indicadores epidemiológicos e econômicos deste estudo contribuem para a geração de evidências para a tomada de decisões no uso e atribuição dos recursos orientados aos serviços de saúde que vão ser demandados por causa das duas doenças nos próximos anos.

Costo-efectividad de intervenciones para esquizofrenia en México / Cost effectiveness of interventions for schizophrenia in Mexico

The World Health Organization estimates that the expense of attending mental illness problems in developed countries amounts to 3-4% out of the total GDP. The public expense for hospitalization of patients diagnosed with schizophrenia was three times higher in patients who decide to leave the treatment than those who continue with it; ambulatory patients amount to almost the same figures in public expenses whether they decide to continue the treatment or not. In the USA, there are 87 000 people hospitalized due to schizophrenia every year, which represent 93 000 hospital days with a cost of about 806 billion dollars a year; to stop patients from leaving the treatment, however, would cut the number of acute cases 12.3% and hospitalizations 13.1%. These two reductions would cut down the expenses in Medicaid as much as 106 million dollars. According to data gathered by the Organization for the Economical Cooperation and Development for Germany, the expense in mental health accounts for 10% of total health expenses, being schizophrenia, depression and anxiety the most costly illnesses. Finland doubled the expenses to attend those who suffered mental illnesses between 1990 and 2003. The total annual expenses for the treatment of schizophrenia in Latin American and Caribbean countries accounts for 1.81%, for Africa 0.47%, for Europe 1.32% and for southern Asia 0.52 in millions of dollars per every million people. In Mexico, a first estimate, based on the demand and the amount of money destined to attend this problem by every health institution, it was concluded that the average annual expenses in medical attention for schizophrenia was US97.54 per person. The Health Sector reports that the cost for a psychiatric evaluation or psychotherapy amounts to US1.42 and the estimated annual cost for the treatment of schizophrenia in a public institution amounts to somewhere between US60.34 and US2,1 86.83; all this would depend on the haloperidol or clozapine drug. In a private institution, the cost for a psychiatric evaluation is US63.44 and the annual estimated cost is somewhere between US1,695.79 and US5,988.58 including treatments with the aforementioned drugs. The cost-effectiveness analysis is a method which indentifies, quantifies and values the expenses of two or more alternatives of sanitary intervention available at the time to reach certain objectives. This will be possible as long as the effects are channeled to the same class of effects. The measure of the analysis summary concerning cost-effectiveness is the ratio cost-effectiveness which allows comparison of different action alternatives, identifying two types of indicators: average cost and increased cost. Regarding the methodological procedures, the research project was based in a length and descriptive study, though not statistical. It was designed to carry out an analysis of cost-effectiveness in the alternatives of treatment for patients who were diagnosed with schizophrenia at the Fray Bernardino Psychiatric Hospital. This study allowed the identification and quantification of costs of the demand, the treatment, hospitalization, and the ambulatory services. The effectiveness of the alternatives in treatment studied is measured in terms of the readmitted. Four non-statistical samples were taken of clinical files out of each studied service. External Consultation: 50 clinical files, 15 were discarded for not being diagnosed with schizophrenia; the other 35 were followed and analyzed for six months. Day Hospital: 65 files of the total of patients diagnosed with schizophrenia, 12 were discarded for being diagnosed differently. Therapeutic clinical adherence (TAC): a sample of 85 files of patients diagnosed with schizophrenia was taken. Patients with membership to ISSSTE diagnosed with schizophrenia who came out of hospitalization between June-October 2008 were followed during a period of six months in order to measure the readmitted to hospitalization; 67 patients were registered. The costs of personnel (doctor, nurses, social service, and psychology and hygiene staff) were obtained out of the coefficient of the total annual salary between the annual working day in minutes for the time destined to attention of each patient. The costs for catering and laundry were calculated directly. The laboratory cost was obtained taking into account cost-time destined to the study of administrative personnel, technicians and supervision, as well as materials and the necessary equipment. The indirect costs (security, hygiene, water, electric power, and municipal and biological waste) were obtained dividing the total annual costs in the average annual number of patients who needed hospitalization; this was done taking into account that the daily average in occupation is 296 patients. The external consultation was excluded for being deemed unimportant in terms of consumption. Analysis: descriptive statistics. Cost-effectiveness analysis. With respect to the main findings, the hospitalization costs are: emergency room US136.00, intensive care US1 62.72, and continuous hospitalization US68.83. The cost of day hospital is US34.57, US68.91 in TAC and external consultation US9.67. The semester consultation for patients undergoing external consultation, day hospital and TAC received 2.3, 23.5 and 7.5 each one. The readmitted in ambulatory services are 8.5%, 7.5%, and 5.8% for external consultation, day hospital, and TAC. The hospitalization days for patients who were readmitted due to an increase in symptoms was 42.5, 1 2.5, and 25 days in average for external consultation, day hospital and TAC. The effectiveness coefficient indicates that avoiding a readmitted to external consultation, day hospital, TAC and external consultation at ISSSTE amounted to US15.26, US518.84, US499.23 and US16.37 accordingly. The cost of making use of an additional hospital unit during the day is US 1321.41; it amounts to US11 66.31 for therapeutic care and US1 7.79 at ISSSTE. According to the main results, the costs for medical attention through the system of cascade primary costs differ too much when compared to the unitary costs published in the Diario Oficial; the ambulatory costs are very different in terms of costs but they show very similar results. The difference between the costs for attending patients diagnosed with schizophrenia is due to the number of patients and the personnel assigned to the area. These results are influenced by the number of semester consultations: 23.5 times in day care hospitalization against the 7.5 and 2.3 times in average of TAC and external consultation accordingly. The average rate of avoided readmitted is low in external consultation compared to the other three alternatives; this rate is affected by the largest number of people who abandoned TAC, which could empirically be explained by the need of the patient to buy his medication. Upon making a comparison of the costs of the alternatives of integral treatment for schizophrenia in the Fray Bernardino Psychiatric Hospital, we found that the average cost for external consultation is much clearer in terms of cost-effectiveness than day hospital and TAC; this means that the first option is much more effective and less money is required than the other two. Even though external consultation registers a very high rate of abandonment in terms of treatment by the patients, it still shows to be more effective. It is also slightly more effective than external consultation at ISSSTE; this is to say that if we only consider the effectiveness based on how much we avoid readmitted, it would be much more appropriate for patients who attend external consultation to be given the necessary medication and in doing so reducing the costs of day care hospitalization and TAC. The increased cost shows that avoiding an admitted to day hospital results in a cost of about US1321.41 which is almost the same as readmitted a patient attending external consultation whose symptoms have become more acute, and much more expensive than the total cost of attending that patient in that service over six months. The cost for avoiding a readmitted in TAC is US1166.31 whereas the cost for avoiding a readmitted in ISSSTE is US1 7.79 the strategy should be targeted to providing the necessary medication for patients who are attending external consultation.

La Organización Mundial de la Salud estima que el gasto por la atención de los problemas de salud mental en países desarrollados corresponde a 3-4% del PIB. La Organización para la Cooperación y Desarrollo Económico reporta que, en la Unión Europea, 25% de los gastos en discapacidad se destinan a las ocasionadas por enfermedad mental. El costo anual total de la esquizofrenia para países de Latinoamérica y el Caribe es de 1.81, para África 0.47, para Europa 1.32 y para el Sur de Asia 0.52 en millones de dólares por millón de personas. En México, en una primera aproximación se concluyó que el costo anual promedio de atención médica de la esquizofrenia es de $1,230. En este contexto, se desarrolló un análisis de costo-efectividad de las tres alternativas de tratamiento de pacientes con diagnóstico de esquizofrenia. Respecto a los principales procedimientos metodológicos, el proyecto se basó en un estudio longitudinal y descriptivo. Se usaron cuatro grupos de expedientes clínicos de cada uno de los servicios estudiados. La efectividad de los tratamientos proporcionados se midió en términos de los reingresos a hospitalización en el periodo estudiado. Los costos calculados: personal, lavandería, alimentos, laboratorio, seguridad, limpieza, agua, energía eléctrica y residuos municipales y biológicos. Análisis costo-efectividad. Entre los principales resultados se encontraron los siguientes: Costo hospitalización: día/paciente en urgencias $1,715.00, en cuidados intensivos $2,052.00, y en hospitalización continua $868.00. El costo diario en hospital de día es de $436.00, en Clínica de Adherencia Terapéutica (CAT) $869.00 y en consulta externa $122.00 por consulta. Las consultas semestrales en consulta externa, hospital de día y CAT recibieron 2.3, 23.5 y 7.5, respectivamente. Los días de hospitalización de los pacientes que reingresaron por exacerbación de síntomas fueron 42.5, 12.5 y 25 en promedio para consulta externa, hospital de día y CAT, respectivamente. Reingresos 8.5, 7.5 y 5.8% para consulta externa, hospital de día y clínica de adherencia terapéutica, respectivamente. El coeficiente de efectividad para consulta externa, hospital de día, CAT y consulta externa del ISSSTE, es de $192.50, $6,542.60, $6,295.30 y $206.50, respectivamente. El costo de producir una unidad adicional en hospital de día es de $1 6,663; en clínica de adherencia terapéutica $ 14,707.20 y en el ISSSTE $224.40. A partir de estos resultados, el artículo retoma los principales hallazgos resaltando los indicadores de costo, de efectividad y del coeficiente costo-efectividad para cada intervención. Los costos de atención médica a través del sistema empleado en el presente documento difieren demasiado de los costos unitarios publicados en el Diario Oficial de la Federación. Los servicios ambulatorios son muy dispares en cuanto a costo pero de resultados similares, influidos por el número de consultas semestrales, 23.5 veces en hospital de día, contra las 7.5 y 2.3 veces en promedio de CAT y consulta externa, respectivamente. La tasa de reingresos evitados es baja en consulta externa respecto a las otras tres alternativas, afectada por el mayor abandono terapéutico atribuido empíricamente a la necesidad del paciente de comprar su medicación. Consulta externa es más costo-efectiva que hospital de día y CAT, esto es, con menos recursos es más efectiva que las otras dos, aun con elevado abandono de tratamiento; sólo considerando la efectividad en términos de evitar reingresos, convendría proporcionarles los medicamentos que requieran a pacientes que acuden a consulta externa, reduciendo los recursos destinados a hospital de día y CAT. Finalmente, es importante resaltar que el costo incremental muestra que evitar un ingreso en hospital de día genera un costo de $1 6,663.00 casi igual al costo de un internamiento; evitar un ingreso en CAT es de $14,707.00 mientras que el costo de evitar un reingreso en el ISSSTE es $224.40. La estrategia debería encaminarse a otorgar los medicamentos en consulta externa.